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Feminist views on transgender and transsexual people have evolved over the years from fairly critical to more accepting. Some feminists such as Janice Raymond and Sheila Jeffreys believe that transgender and transsexual people uphold and reinforce sexist gender roles and the gender binary, while other feminists, such as Judith Butler and Jack Halberstam, believe that transgender and transsexual people challenge repressive gender norms and that transgender politics are fully compatible with feminism. Additionally, some transgender and transsexual people, such as Julia Serano and Jacob Anderson-Minshall, are feminists. ==Feminist criticism== In 1977 Gloria Steinem expressed disapproval that the heavily publicized transition of tennis player Renée Richards (a trans woman) had been characterized as "a frightening instance of what feminism could lead to" or as "living proof that feminism isn't necessary". Steinem wrote, "At a minimum, it was a diversion from the widespread problems of sexual inequality." She writes that, while she supports the right of individuals to identify as they choose, in many cases, transgender people "surgically mutilate their own bodies" in order to conform to a gender role that is inexorably tied to physical body parts. She concludes that "feminists are right to feel uncomfortable about the need for and uses of transsexualism." The article concluded with what became one of Steinem's most famous quotes: "If the shoe doesn't fit, must we change the foot?" Although meant in the context of transgender issues, the quote is frequently mistaken as a general statement about feminism. In a 2013 interview with ''The Advocate'', Steinem repudiated and apologized for her previously stated views. She stated that "I believe that transgender people, including those who have transitioned, are living out real, authentic lives. Those lives should be celebrated, not questioned. Their health care decisions should be theirs and theirs alone to make. And what I wrote decades ago does not reflect what we know today as we move away from only the binary boxes of "masculine" or "feminine" and begin to live along the full human continuum of identity and expression."〔Steinem, Gloria (October 2, 2013). ("On Working Together Over Time." ) The Advocate.〕 In 1979, Janice Raymond wrote a book on transsexualism called ''The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-Male'', which looked at the role of transsexuality–particularly psychological and surgical approaches to it—in reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes, the ways in which the "medical-psychiatric complex" is medicalizing "gender identity", and the social and political context that has helped spawn transsexual treatment and surgery as normal and therapeutic medicine. Raymond maintains that transsexualism is based on the "patriarchal myths" of "male mothering", and "making of woman according to man's image". She claims this is done in order "to colonize feminist identification, culture, politics and sexuality," adding: "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves .... Transsexuals merely cut off the most obvious means of invading women, so that they seem non-invasive."〔Raymond, Janice. (1994). ''The Transsexual Empire'', p. 104〕 Several writers have characterized these views as extremely transphobic, and indeed constituting hate speech against transgender men and women.〔Rose, Katrina C. (2004) "(The Man Who Would be Janice Raymond )", ''Transgender Tapestry'' 104, Winter 2004〕〔Julia Serano (2007) ''Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity'', pp. 233–234〕〔Namaste, Viviane K. (2000) ''Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People'', pp. 33–34.〕〔Hayes, Cressida J., 2003, "Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender," in ''Signs'' 28(4):1093–1120.〕 In ''The Transsexual Empire'', Janice Raymond includes sections on Sandy Stone, a trans woman who had worked as a sound engineer for Olivia Records, and Christy Barsky, accusing both of creating divisiveness in women's spaces.〔Raymond, Janice. (1994). ''The Transsexual Empire'', pp. 101–102.〕 Ruth Hubbard criticized these writings as personal attacks on these individuals.〔Hubbard, Ruth, 1996, "Gender and Genitals: Constructs of Sex and Gender," in ''Social Text'' 46/47, p. 163.〕 In 1997 Sheila Jeffreys published a paper that stated that "“transgenderism” is ... deeply problematic from a feminist perspective and that transsexualism should be seen as a violation of human rights"〔Jeffreys, Sheila (1997). Transgender Activism: A Lesbian Feminist Perspective. "Journal of Lesbian Studies", Vol. 1(3/4) 1997〕 In 2012 she wrote in The Guardian that she and others who "criticised transgenderism, from any academic discipline," had been subjected to internet campaigns to ban their speaking because of alleged "transhate, transphobia, hate speech". She writes that the "degree of vituperation and the energy expended by the activists may suggest that they fear the practice of transgenderism could justifiably be subjected to criticism, and might not stand up to rigorous research and debate, if critics were allowed to speak out."〔Sheila Jeffreys, (Let us be free to debate transgenderism without being accused of 'hate speech' ), published in The Guardian, May 29, 2012. The article was a response to Roz Kaveney, (Radical feminists are acting like a cult ), The Guardian, 25 May 2012.〕 Jeffreys is co-author with Lorene Gottschalk of the 2013 book ''Gender Hurts: A Feminist Analysis of the Politics of Transgenderism''.〔Sheila Jeffreys, Lorene Gottschalk, ''Gender Hurts: A Feminist Analysis of the Politics of Transgenderism'', Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2013, ISBN 0415539404, 9780415539401〕 In 1999, in the book ''The Whole Woman'', Germaine Greer published a sequel to ''The Female Eunuch''. One chapter was titled "Pantomime Dames", wherein she states her opposition to accepting trans women who were assigned male at birth as women:〔Greer, Germaine, (1999), ''the whole woman'', Transworld Publishers Ltd, 1999, ISBN 0-385-60016-X, p 64〕 "Governments that consist of very few women have hurried to recognise as women men who believe that they are women and have had themselves castrated to prove it, because they see women not as another sex but as a non-sex. No so-called sex-change has ever begged for a uterus-and-ovaries transplant; if uterus-and-ovaries transplants were made mandatory for wannabe women they would disappear overnight. The insistence that man-made women be accepted as women is the institutional expression of the mistaken conviction that women are defective males." Greer was glitter bombed in a protest against these views at a 2012 book signing in Wellington, New Zealand by a group known as the Queer Avengers. More recently, Julie Bindel wrote several articles critical of gender reassignment surgery, transsexualism and transgender issues. Bindel's first published article on transsexualism appeared in The ''Guardian, in May 2007''; it was the first example of coverage of a narrative of 'transsexual regret' in the UK media. Bindel interviewed 'Claudia', a post-operative transsexual, who regretted her decision to have surgery and felt that the psychiatrist involved did not take sufficient care in reaching a diagnosis. Bindel questioned the medical approach in the article.〔Bindel, Julie (May 23 2007), Mistaken Identity, The Guardian〕 A month later a piece titled "Gender Benders, beware" was printed in ''The Guardian'' concerning her anger about a rape crisis centre's dispute with a transsexual rape counselor; the article also expressed her views about transsexuals and transsexualism.〔 Many considered the language used to be offensive and demeaning. ''The Guardian'' received more than two hundred letters of complaint from transgender people, doctors, therapists, academics and others. Transgender activist group Press for Change cite this article as an example of 'discriminatory writing' about transsexual people in the press.〔(Media Issues ) Press for Change – PfC examples of press coverage〕 Complaints focused on the title, "Gender benders, beware", the cartoon〔(Gender Benders, Beware ) The Guardian Weekend, 31 January 2004〕 accompanying the piece,〔Claire McNab (Re: UK: Gender benders, beware ) (Guardian ) McNabb reaction to PfC list on article〕 and the disparaging tone, such as "Think about a world inhabited just by transsexuals. It would look like the set of ''Grease''" and "I don't have a problem with men disposing of their genitals, but it does not make them women, in the same way that shoving a bit of vacuum hose down your 501s () does not make you a man." As of 2009 Bindel reportedly still maintained that "people should question the basis of the diagnosis of male psychiatrists, 'at a time when gender polarisation and homophobia work hand-in-hand.'"〔 She argues that "Iran carries out the highest number of sex change surgeries in the world" that "surgery is an attempt to keep gender stereotypes intact".〔 Bindel attended.〕 Bindel responded to the protest in a piece in the ''Guardian'' which covered the way the LGBT movement had developed since her early days as a radical lesbian feminist. She suggested that the protest was as much about "Stonewall for refusing to add the T (for transsexual) on to the LGB (for lesbian, gay and bisexual)." and that "the idea that certain distinct behaviours are appropriate for males and females underlies feminist criticism of the phenomenon of 'transgenderism'."〔 Following the Stonewall protest Whittle invited her to debate these issues again with Susan Stryker, a trans academic and activist from the USA, in front of an audience at Manchester Metropolitan University on 12 December 2008. The debate was broadcast live on the internet. In 2011 Camille Paglia criticized transsexualism as a current fashion and claimed that transgender celebrities such as Chaz Bono are "mutilating"〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Camille Paglia disses Chaz Bono: Says trans man is 'mutilating her body' )May 3, 2011〕 their bodies and "popping their pills and shooting themselves up with male hormone every day."〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Voluble radical gives old and new Puritans a tongue-lashing )〕 Robert Jensen has outlined feminist〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Some Basic Propositions about Sex, Gender, and Patriarchy ) June 13, 2014〕 and ecological concerns〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Ecological and Social Implications of Trans and Climate Change ) September 12, 2014〕 about transgender ideology, and connected that ideology to a larger cultural fear of the feminist critique of patriarchy.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Feminism Unheeded ) January 8, 2015〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Feminist views on transgender and transsexual people」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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